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Acute-on-chronic liver failure
Background
Overview
Definition
ACLF is a syndrome characterized by an acute decompensation of chronic liver disease, which is associated with organ failures and high short-term mortality.
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Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of ACLF involves a state of deregulated inflammation, with an initial cytokine burst presenting as systemic inflammatory response syndrome, progression to compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome, and associated immunoparalysis leading to sepsis and multi-organ failure.
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Epidemiology
The prevalence of ACLF in the US is estimated at 26.4% in hospitalized patients with decompensated cirrhosis.
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Risk factors
Risk factors for ACLF include excessive alcohol consumption, chronic viral hepatitis, and sepsis. Recurrence of chronic viral hepatitis and ongoing alcohol abuse also contribute to the disease. However, in 40-50% of cases, no identifiable trigger can be found.
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Disease course
Clinically, it presents with signs of liver failure such as jaundice, encephalopathy, coagulopathy, and ascites, with or without extrahepatic organ failure, including kidney, circulatory, and respiratory that can be complicated by sepsis. The clinical profile of ACLF is complex and can change over the course of hospital admission.
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Prognosis and risk of recurrence
The prognosis is generally poor, with substantial short-term mortality.
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Guidelines
Key sources
The following summarized guidelines for the evaluation and management of acute-on-chronic liver failure are prepared by our editorial team based on guidelines from the British Society for Haematology (BSH 2024), the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL 2024,2023,2018), the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM 2023,2020), and the American College of Gastroenterology (ACG 2022).
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Screening and diagnosis
Classification and risk stratification
Prediction of ACLF: as per EASL 2023 guidelines, use the CLIF-C acute decompensation score sequentially to provide prognostic information regarding 90-day, 180-day, and 365-day mortality in patients without ACLF.
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Severity assessment
Diagnostic investigations
Evaluation of precipitants: as per EASL 2023 guidelines, obtain systematic evaluation to identify the most common precipitants, including proven bacterial infection, alcohol-related hepatitis, gastrointestinal hemorrhage with hemodynamic instability, flare of HBV infection, HEV infection, recent use of a drug known to cause cerebral failure, and recent use of a drug known to cause kidney failure, in all patients admitted for ACLF or developing ACLF during hospital stay.
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Medication review
Viscoelastic testing
Coagulation studies
Nutritional assessment
Evaluation for infection
Respiratory support
Supplemental oxygen
As per SCCM 2020 guidelines:
Provide supportive care with supplemental oxygen in the management of patients with hepatopulmonary syndrome, pending possible liver transplantation.
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Consider using high-flow nasal cannula over noninvasive ventilation in hypoxic critically ill patients with ACLF.
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Mechanical ventilation
Medical management
General principles, setting of care: as per EASL 2023 guidelines, admit patients with ACLF requiring close monitoring or organ support to the ICU.
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General principles (goals of care)
General principles (supportive care)
General principles (precautions)
Fluid resuscitation
Albumin
Vasopressors
Thromboprophylaxis
Antibiotic prophylaxis
G-CSF
Sedation
Management of variceal hemorrhage
Management of portopulmonary hypertension
Management of vascular complications
Management of infection
Management of SBP
Management of septic shock
Management of hepatic encephalopathy
Management of AKI
Management of beta-blockers
Inpatient care
Nonpharmacologic interventions
Nutrition, route of administration
As per EASL 2023 guidelines:
Prefer oral intake whenever possible. Attempt enteral nutrition, ideally using a nasojejunal tube, if oral intake is not possible. Consider initiating parenteral nutrition if enteral nutrition is not tolerated.
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Initiate oral nutrition as soon as possible in patients experiencing variceal bleeding/upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Recognize that enteral nutrition can be used safely.
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Nutrition (total calories)
Nutrition (proteins)
Nutrition (oral supplements)
Nutrition (fasting/refeeding)
Therapeutic procedures
Blood transfusion: as per ACG 2022 guidelines, avoid administering transfusions in the absence of bleeding or a planned procedure in patients with ACLF and altered coagulation parameters.
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Large-volume paracentesis
Pleurodesis
Extracorporeal liver support
Perioperative care
Periprocedural management: as per BSH 2024 guidelines, consider seeking specialist input for patients with ACLF undergoing an essential procedure. Consider administering fibrinogen, platelet, and other coagulation factor replacement on a case-by-case basis.
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Peritransplant management
Surgical interventions
Specific circumstances
Patients with alcohol-associated hepatitis: as per EASL 2023 guidelines, do not use corticosteroids in patients with severe alcohol-related hepatitis and ACLF or uncontrolled bacterial infection.
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Patients with HBV infection
Patients with AIH